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Flash Memory Guide

Portable Flash memory for computers, digital cameras, cell phones and other devices

Kingston®

, the world’s leading independent manufacturer of memory products, offers a broad range

of Flash cards and USB Flash drives (collectively called Flash storage devices) that employ Flash

memory chips for storage. The purpose of this guide is to explain the various technologies and

Flash memory offerings that are available.

Note: Due to Flash technology changes, speciﬁcations listed in this document

are subject to change without notice.

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1.0

2.0

Its enduring commitment

to service and support

makes Kingston an easy

choice for Flash memory.

Flash Memory: Empowering A New Generation of Flash

Storage Devices

Toshiba invented Flash memory in the 1980s as a new memory technology that allowed

stored data to be saved even when the memory device was disconnected from its power

source. Since then, Flash memory technology has evolved into the preferred storage media

for a variety of consumer and industrial devices.

IN CONSUMER DEVICES, FLASH MEMORY IS WIDELY USED IN:

• Notebook computers • Personal computers

• Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) • Digital cameras

• Global Positioning Systems (GPS) • Cell phones

• Solid-state music players such as • Electronic musical instruments

MP3 players • Television set-top boxes

Flash memory is also used in many industrial applications where reliability and data retention

in power-off situations are key requirements, such as in:

• Security systems • Military systems

• Embedded computers • Solid-state disk drives

• Networking and communication products • Wireless communication devices

• Retail management products • Medical products

(e.g., handheld scanners)

Flash Card or USB Flash Drive Capacity

Some of a Flash storage device’s listed capacity is used for formatting and other functions

and thus is not available for data storage.

When a Flash storage device is manufactured, steps are taken to ensure that the device

operates reliably and to permit the host device (computer, digital camera, PDA, cell phone,

etc.) to access the memory cells — i.e., to store and retrieve data on the Flash storage device.

These steps — loosely called “formatting” — utilize some of the memory cells within the

device and thus reduce the capacity available for data storage by the end user.

Formatting includes the following operations:

1. Testing each memory cell in the Flash storage device.

2. Identifying all defective cells and taking steps to ensure that no data will be written

to or read from a defective cell.

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3. Reserving some cells to serve as “spares.” Flash memory cells have a long but nite

lifetime. Therefore, some cells are held in reserve to replace any memory cells that may

fail over time.

4. Creating a File Allocation Table (FAT) or other directory. To enable Flash storage devices

to conveniently store and access customer les, a le management system must be created

to allow any device or computer to identify the les stored in the Flash storage device.

The most common type of le management system for Flash storage devices is the File

Allocation Table (FAT), which is also used on hard drives.

5. Reserving some cells for use by the Flash storage device’s controller, e.g., for storing

rmware updates and other controller-specic information.

6. Where applicable, reserving some cells for special features. For example, the specication

for Secure Digital (SD) cards requires reserved areas to support special copy protection

and security features.

Features of Kingston’s Flash Storage Products

Kingston’s Flash storage devices offer many advantages for both consumer and industrial

applications:

• Flash Storage Device Warranty: Kingston warrants that its Flash storage devices are

free from defects in material and workmanship for the period specied below:

• SD and CF Cards: Lifetime†

• DataTraveler® USB Flash Drives: 5 years

• MobileLite 9-in1, microSD and Media Readers: 2 years

For further details, see kingston.com/company/warranty.asp

• Solid State: Flash storage devices, as semiconductor storage devices, have no moving parts

and thereby are not subject to the mechanical failure issues of hard drives. Their overall

data reliability enabled them to dominate the convenience-oriented portable memory

products market, operating silently with a zero decibel noise level.

• Small Physical Size (or Form Factor): Flash storage devices are designed to be easily

transported. Convenience is an important criterion, especially for consumer and corporate

applications.

• High Data Reliability: Flash memory is very reliable and many of the Flash storage device

types also include Error Correction Code (ECC) checking to detect single-bit errors.

Kingston’s CompactFlash

cards have a rated error

specication of less

than one (1) bit in

1,000,000,000,000,000

bits read, or one (1)

bit per 1015 bits read.

3.0

†10-year warranty in France, Germany and Austria.

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For example, Kingston’s CompactFlash® cards have a rated error specication of less

than one (1) bit in 1,000,000,000,000,000 bits read (1 bit per 1015 bits read).

• Kingston Flash Data Retention: Kingston Flash storage devices are rated for up to 10 years

under normal use. Important information should also be backed up on other media for

long-term safekeeping.

• Wear-Leveling Technology: Kingston Flash storage devices incorporate controllers

utilizing advanced wear-leveling technology, which distributes write cycles across the

Flash card. Wear-leveling thus extends the useful life of a Flash memory card (for details,

please see Kingston Flash Cell Endurance section, next).

• Flash Cell Endurance: For Multi-Level Cell (MLC) Flash, up to 10,000 write cycles

per physical sector. For Single-Level Cell (SLC) Flash, up to 100,000 write cycles per

physical sector.

According to Toshiba, the inventor of Flash memory: “the 10,000 cycles of MLC NAND is

more than sufcient for a wide range of consumer applications, from storing documents to

digital photos. For example, if a 256-MB MLC NAND Flash-based card can typically store

250 pictures from a 4-megapixel camera (a conservative estimate), its 10,000 write/erase

cycles, combined with wear-leveling algorithms in the controller, will enable the user to

store and/or view approximately 2.5 million pictures within the expected useful life of

the card.”1

For USB Flash drives, Toshiba calculated that a 10,000 write cycle endurance would enable

customers to “completely write and erase the entire contents once per day for 27 years,

well beyond the life of the hardware.”

SLC Flash based-products, typically found in Kingston’s Elite Pro™/Ultimate Flash cards

and DataTraveler II, II Plus – Migo Edition and Secure / Secure – Privacy Edition USB Flash

drives, offer both high performance and high endurance.

• Automatic Bad Sector Remapping: Kingston Flash controllers automatically lock out

sections with bad memory cells (“bad blocks”) and move the data to other sections

(“spare blocks”) to avoid data corruption. During factory formatting (as described in

Section 2), spare blocks are set aside on the Flash storage device for remapping bad

sectors over time to extend the useful life and reliability of the Flash storage device.

• High-Quality Connectors: Kingston’s Flash storage devices have connectors rated for

more than 10,000 insertions.

• Operating, Temperature and Humidity: 32°F to 140°F (0° C to 60° C), 5% to 95%

humidity (typical).

1Toshiba press release, “Toshiba America Electronic Components, Inc.

Releases Performance Research on MLC NAND Flash Memory for Consumer

Applications,” May 10, 2004

Kingston engineers

test and select high-

performance controllers

to ensure that Kingston’s

Flash cards are among the

performance leaders in

the industry.

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• High-Capacity: Flash storage devices can provide large storage capacities in a very small

form factor. This exibility makes them ideal for consumer uses, such as digital lm or

storage for MP3 music, where portability and convenience are important.

Please note: Some of the listed capacity is used for formatting and other

functions and thus is not available for data storage. Please see Section 2 for details.

• High-Performance: Kingston’s Elite Pro/Ultimate Flash cards and Hi-Speed DataTraveler

USB Flash drives are faster than many standard Flash products and many competitive

products. Kingston’s engineers test and select high-performance controllers to ensure that

Kingston’s Flash cards are among the performance leaders. Please see the Appendix for

information about USB and Hi-Speed USB performance. Kingston standard Flash products

offer moderate performance levels for general purpose applications.

• Low Power Consumption: Unlike standard DRAM memory that needs to be constantly

powered on to maintain its data, Flash memory is non-volatile and does not require

power to maintain its data. Flash memory’s low power consumption results in longer

battery life for the host device.

• Plug-and-Play Support: Kingston’s Flash memory line supports plug and play. With

plug-and-play technology and compatible computer operating systems, a Flash storage

device can be inserted into a computer or a Flash media reader and be quickly recognized

and accessed by the computer.

• Hot-Swapping Support: Hot-swapping allows for plugging or unplugging Flash storage

devices into a compatible computer or reader without needing to power off and restart the

computer. This feature enhances the portability and convenience of Flash storage devices

for transferring data, pictures or music between two computers or devices.

Non-Volatile NOR and NAND Flash Technologies

Unlike Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), Flash memory is non-volatile. Non-

volatile memory retains data even without being powered-on. For example, when a computer

is turned off, all data that was in the computer’s DRAM memory is lost; however, when a

Flash storage device is removed from a digital camera, all data (and pictures) remains saved

on the Flash storage device. The ability to retain data is key for Flash memory applications

such as digital lm for digital cameras, cell phones, PDAs and other transportable devices.

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There are two major technologies of Flash memory: NOR and NAND. Each technology

has strengths that make it ideal for different kinds of applications, as summarized in the

table below:

4.1 NOR FLASH MEMORY

NOR, named after the specic data mapping technology (Not OR), is a high-speed Flash

technology. NOR Flash memory provides high-speed random-access capabilities, being able

to read and write data in specic locations in the memory without having to access the

memory in sequential mode. Unlike NAND Flash, NOR Flash allows the retrieval of data as

small as a single byte. NOR Flash excels in applications where data is randomly retrieved or

written. NOR is most often found built into cellular phones (to store the phone’s operating

system) and PDAs and is also used in computers to store the BIOS program that runs to

provide the start-up functionality

4.2 NAND FLASH MEMORY

NAND Flash was invented after NOR Flash, and is named after the specic mapping

technology used for data (Not AND). NAND Flash memory reads and writes in high-speed,

sequential mode, handling data in small, block sizes (“pages”). NAND Flash can retrieve or

write data as single pages, but cannot retrieve individual bytes like NOR Flash.

NAND Flash memory is commonly found in solid-state hard drives, audio and video Flash

media devices, television set-top boxes, digital cameras, cell phones (for data storage) and

other devices where data is generally written or read sequentially.

For example, most digital cameras use NAND-Flash based digital lm, as pictures are

usually taken and stored sequentially. NAND-Flash is also more efcient when pictures are

read back, as it transfers whole pages of data very quickly. As a sequential storage medium,

NAND Flash is ideal for data storage.

NAND Flash memory is less expensive than NOR Flash memory, and can accommodate

more storage capacity in the same die size.

Flash memory which stores a single bit per cell (e.g., a value of “0” or “1” per cell) is known

as Single-Level Cell (SLC) Flash.

* For operating system.

** For data storage.

NOR Flash NAND Flash

High-speed Access Ye s Ye s

Page-Mode Data Access No Ye s

Random Byte Level Access Ye s No

Typical Uses Cell Phones*

BIOS Storage for PCs

Networking Device Memory

PDAs

Digital Cameras

Cell Phones**

MP3 players

Solid State Disk Drives

Set-Top Boxes

Industrial Storage

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Die-Stacking and Multi-Level Cell/Multi-Bit Cell Flash technologies

In order to economically increase the amount of bit-storage that a Flash memory chip can

accommodate, manufacturers often utilize die-stacking and multi-level cell or multi-bit cell

technologies. These technologies result in a Flash memory chip having the capability to

store more data in a single chip.

5.1 DIE-STACKING

Many semiconductor manufacturers use a “die-stacking” technique to double a Flash

memory chip’s capacity. After the semiconductor wafer fabrication process, they cut out the

Flash memory silicon “die” and then attach or stack two separate dies together.

For example, when a semiconductor manufacturer stacks two 1 gigabit dies together, they

form a single 2 gigabit Flash memory chip.

Die-stacking allows for cost-reduced chip alternatives to the larger-capacity, single-die chips

(called “monolithic” chips). Stacking two 8-gigabit chips together, for example, typically

costs far less than buying a low-volume monolithic 16-gigabit chip. The 16-gigabit chip can

then be used to build a 2-GB Flash card (single chip card), or a 4-GB Flash card (two chips

on one card).

Die-stacking is similar to the DRAM chip-stacking technology that Kingston utilizes to

produce high-end server modules. As a result, Kingston’s die-stacked Flash cards are reliable

and deliver high performance.

5.2 MULTI-LEVEL CELL (MLC) FLASH TECHNOLOGIES

NAND and NOR Flash memory chips store one (1) bit value (a “0” or a “1”) in each cell. In

multi-level Flash technologies, two (2) or more values are stored into each cell.

Intel Corporation has introduced NOR StrataFlash™; AMD has introduced NOR MirrorBit™

Flash. Other semiconductor manufacturers also manufacture their own multi-level cell

technologies.

NAND MLC Flash technologies were introduced in late 2002, and Kingston has incorporated

MLC Flash memory into its line of standard Flash cards and DataTraveler (DTI/XXX) USB

Flash drives.

5.3 MULTI-BIT CELL (MBC) FLASH TECHNOLOGY

Multi-bit technology is a competing technology to Multi-Level Cell (MLC), and accomplishes

the same goal by storing 2 bits per cell (or 4 values per cell). MBC technology is presently

used in Inneon’s TwinFlash™memory.

CompactFlash cards

were the rst small

form factor Flash

memory cards.

5.0

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Flash Storage Device Performance

Flash card storage device performance depends on the following three factors:

• The specic Flash memory chips used: Generally, there is a tradeoff between the

high-speed and more expensive Single-Level Cell (SLC) Flash chips, and the standard

speed and more affordable Multi-Level Cell (MLC) or Multi-Bit Cell (MBC) Flash chips.

Kingston’s high-performance Flash cards (Elite Pro/Ultimate) and DataTraveler II

Plus – Migo Edition, and Secure / Secure – Privacy Edition USB Flash drives all utilize

high-performance SLC Flash memory.

• The Flash storage device’s controller: Today’s Flash storage devices have a built-in

Flash memory controller. This special chip manages the interface to the host device,

and handles all the reads from and writes to the Flash chips on the Flash storage device.

If the host controller is capable of supporting faster data transfer speeds, the use of

optimized Flash controllers can result in signicant time savings when reading or

writing data into the Flash memory. For example, Kingston uses optimized,

high-performance Flash controllers in its Elite Pro/Ultimate Flash cards and DataTraveler

Hi-Speed USB Flash drives.

• The host device to which the Flash storage device is connected to: If the host device

(computer, digital camera, cell phones, etc.) is limited to specic read and write speeds,

using faster Flash storage devices will not deliver higher performance. For example, using

a Hi-Speed USB Flash drive on a computer that supports only the slower USB speeds

will not result in faster transfers. In addition, computers need to be properly congured to

support faster transfers in both hardware and software. In the case of a PC, the system

board will need to have built-in Hi-Speed USB 2.0 connectors, and the Operating System

(e.g., Windows) will also need to have the proper USB 2.0 drivers installed in order to be

able to support Hi-Speed USB transfers.

For details on USB Performance, refer to Appendix A.

Flash memory product manufacturers provide “x-speed” ratings for Flash cards. However,

due to a lack of industry standards, comparing different Flash products may prove difcult for

consumers. For details, see kingston.com/ﬂash/x

Kingston works closely with global semiconductor and controller manufacturers to

ensure that Kingston Flash cards deliver superior price/performance to its customers. For

enthusiasts and advanced customers demanding the highest performance, Kingston offers

the Elite Pro/Ultimate line of CompactFlash and SD cards, and the DataTraveler Hi-Speed

USB Flash drives.

USB Flash drives offers

an easy way to transfer

les from a digital device

to a computer.

6.0

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Kingston’s Flash Card Product Lines

There are several types of Flash storage devices that are available from Kingston:

7.1 USB FLASH DRIVES

Introduced in 2002, USB Flash drives offer an incredible combination of high storage

capacity, fast data transfer rates, and great exibility, all in the palm of your hand. Heralded

as a oppy or CD drive alternative, USB Flash drives have far more storage capacity than that

of a standard oppy disk or CD-ROM drive replacement. They provide an easy method for

quick downloads and transferring digital les to and from your computer or device.

USB Flash drives incorporate NAND Flash and a controller in a capsulated case. USB Flash

drives work with the vast majority of computers and devices that incorporate the Universal

Serial Bus interface, including most PCs, PDAs, and MP3 players.

Kingston offers a full line of DataTraveler Hi-Speed USB Flash drives. Some DataTravelers

also support password-protection and hardware-based AES encryption for improved

security. For details, please visit kingston.com/ﬂash/dt_chart.asp.

7.2 COMPACTFLASH (CF) CARDS

CompactFlash, or CF cards, were the rst small form factor Flash cards introduced in 1994.

CF cards incorporate a controller and are about the size of a matchbook. CompactFlash

cards incorporate an Integrated Device Electronics (IDE) interface similar to hard drives

and ATA PC Cards. Kingston is a member of the CompactFlash Association, which sets the

specications for CF cards.

Kingston offers standard CompactFlash cards as well as high-performance Elite Pro and

Ultimate lines.

Kingston’s Elite Pro/Ultimate CompactFlash cards are among the fastest available in the

industry. The high transfer rate is ideal for use on newer devices such as high-megapixel

digital cameras, to ensure that the cameras save pictures faster and are quickly ready for the

next shot.

CompactFlash cards come in a Type I form factor:

- USB Flash Drives (DataTravelers)

- Secure Digital Cards (SD, SDHC, miniSDHC, microSD, microSDHC)

- CompactFlash® Cards

7.0

INTERFACE VOLTAGE PIN COUNT SIZE IN MM

CompactFlash 3.3 and 5 Volts 50 Type I:

36.4 x 42.8 x 3.3

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Kingston offers a wide range

of Secure Digital Cards

7.3 SECURE DIGITAL CARDS (SD, SDHC, miniSDHC, microSD, microSDHC)

Secure Digital, introduced in late 2001, is a second-generation derivative of the

MultiMediaCard (MMC) standard (see section 7.4).

The Secure Digital format includes several important technological advancements over

MMC. These include the addition of cryptographic security protection for copyrighted

data/music. The SD Card Association, of which Kingston is an executive member, sets the

specications for Secure Digital cards.

SD cards are slightly thicker than the original MMC cards. This means that devices designedto

support SD cards may also accept MMC cards (if the host device is not strictly limited to SD

media for SD copy protection management features). However, devices exclusively designed

for MMC cards will not support the thicker SD cards at this time.

Kingston offers standard SD cards as well as high-performance Elite Pro and Ultimate SD

cards. Secure Digital High Capacity (SDHC), starting at 4GB, offers larger volume data

storage and optimized recording performance with support for FAT 32 le formats. In

addition, Kingston’s SDHC cards use new speed “class” ratings known as Class 2, 4 and 6

that deliver a minimum data transfer rate for optimum performance with SDHC devices.

Although identical in size to today’s standard SD card, the new SDHC cards are designed

differently and are only recognized by SDHC host devices. To ensure compatibility, look for

the SDHC logo on cards and host devices (cameras, camcorders, etc.).

miniSD (SDM) and microSD (SDC) are the mobile platform form factors of the SD card for

use in cell phones and other portable devices. miniSD and microSD are a fraction of the size

of a standard SD card and, when used with the supplied Kingston adapter, can be used in

standard SD device slots (for example, in Flash media readers).

Starting at 4GB, miniSDHC cards offer higher storage capacity for high-resolution multimedia

content and support more demanding data transfer rates. Kingston’s miniSDHC cards use

new speed “class” ratings known as Class 2, 4 and 6 that guarantee a minimum data transfer

rate for optimum performance with devices that use miniSDHC storage devices. Identical in

size to today’s standard miniSD card, the new miniSDHC cards are designed differently and

are only recognized by miniSDHC host devices.

microSDHC cards offer higher storage for more music, more videos, more pictures, more

games — more of everything for today’s mobile world. The microSDHC card allows users to

maximize storage for today’s revolutionary mobile devices.

INTERFACE VOLTAGE PIN COUNT SIZE IN MM

Secure Digital / SDHC 2.7 – 3.3 Volts 9 32 x 24 x 2.1

miniSD / miniSDHC 2.7 – 3.3 Volts 11 20 x 21.5 x 1.4

microSD / microSDHC 2.7 – 3.3 Volts 8 15 x 11 x 1

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